關於 misinformation disinformation ，我們在網路上蒐集到這些相關的討論、資訊與評價

[7th Hong Kong Internet Governance Forum] (HKIGF)

Fake News Law: Effective to combat online disinformation?

Date: 15th Sep, 2021 (WED)
Time: 19:00 - 21:00 HKT (11:00 - 13:00 UTC)
Venue: Zoom meeting room (the link will be sent to your email address ) & ISOC HK Facebook
Language: English
Moderator: Edmon Chung - Board of Director, ISOC HK

Discussion Topic:
Fake news law: Effective to combat disinformation online?
立法打擊假新聞，效用大唔大？

The HKSAR government is considering to implement "fake news" law to combat disinformation, especially on online media platforms and social media, due to the appearance of a considerable amount of misinformation and disinformation online. However, some voiced out it might undermine freedom of speech, freedom of press and free flow of information online. Is legislation an effective way to combat "fake news" online? What impact will it cause to the media and online community? What can we learn from "fake news" law in other countries?

Speakers:
Mr. Benjamin Ang - Senior Fellow, S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies (RSIS), Nanyang Technological University (NTU)
Mr. Ronson Chan 陳朗昇 - Chairperson, The Hong Kong Journalists Association (HKJA)
Mr. Raymond Li 李文 - Director, Institute for Journalism and Society (IJS), Hong Kong Baptist University (HKBU)
Mr. Charles Mok 莫乃光 - Director, Tech for Good Asia

In this edition of HKIFG, we have invited experts from different aspects, namely journalist, Hong Kong scholar, IT professional and Singaporean scholar, to talk about their observation and opinion on the potential implementation of "Fake News Law" in Hong Kong. We aim to explore the topic through different perspectives and try to cast new light to the topic by including a case study of a similar enactment in Singapore.

Register here:
https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSc3K8oojg80xFZQb96KXgF7eVnCdlLFe3vxG3FI81MV1eziwQ/viewform

#HKIGF #FakeNewsLaw #Misinformation #Disinformation #ISOCHK

淺談「假新聞」

最近上課時學到一個新單字「positionality」，讓我想到當前社群媒體上，不停看到的「fake news」——假新聞。

簡言之，「positionality」(位置性) 被定義為於種族、階級、性別、性取向以及能力等狀態中，創造你身分的社會與政治背景。位置性還描述了你的身分如何影響你對世界的理解與看法，以及潛在的偏見。

positionality 位置性；定位
https://terms.naer.edu.tw/detail/3390885/
https://www.lexico.com/definition/positionality

以下是我對「positionality」與 「fake news」的些許觀點：

“Fake news” has permeated all facets of life, ranging from social media interaction to presidential elections. Fake news can be defined as “fabricated information that mimics news media content in form but not in organizational process or intent” (Lazer et al., 2018, p. 1094). The creators and outlets of fake news do not ensure the accuracy and credibility of information, but rather disseminate misinformation or disinformation for purposes ranging from personal amusement to creating deceptions to achieve political aims. At times, fake news is created and disseminated by state or non-state actors using social media accounts and networks of bots designed to hijack feed algorithms of platforms such as Twitter or Facebook (Prier, 2017, p. 54). In the 2016 U.S. presidential campaign, Facebook estimated that up to 60 million bots were used to post political content. Some of the same bots were then used in an attempt to influence the 2017 French election (Lazer et al., 2018, p. 1095). Such campaigns can be understood as a form of information warfare, a comprehensive attempt to control and influence every facet of the information supply chain, thereby influencing public opinion and behaviors. (Prier, 2017, p. 54). Often, fake news is not directly created by actors that seek to manipulate but by journalists or content creators whose content favors or aligns with the narratives of these actors (Doshi, 2020).

從社群媒體的互動到總統選舉，「假新聞」（fake news）已滲透至生活的各個層面。假新聞可被定義為「在形式上而非組織過程或意圖上，模仿新聞媒體內容所捏造的資訊」（Lazer et al., 2018, p. 1094）。無論是出於個人愛好或為達政治目的而有所欺瞞，假新聞的製造者與傳播管道並不保證資訊的準確性與可信度，反而是為了散播錯誤訊息（misinformation）或扭曲訊息（disinformation）。有時，假新聞是由國家或非國家行為者（state or non-state actors）所製造與傳播，藉由社群媒體帳號及網絡機器人來劫持諸如臉書與推特等平臺的推送演算法（Prier, 2017, p. 54）。在2016年的美國總統大選中，臉書估計有多達６千萬個機器人被用來發布政治貼文。其中，有部分機器人被用於影響隔年的法國大選（Lazer et al., 2018, p. 1095）。此類行動可視為資訊戰（information warfare）的一種形式，一種對控制與影響資訊供應鏈各環節的全面嘗試，從而影響公眾輿論與行為（Prier, 2017, p. 54）。假新聞通常是由記者或內容創造者（content creators）所創造，而非試圖操弄的行為者，前者的內容偏好符合後者的敘事（Doshi, 2020）。

Nevertheless, while the term “fake news” is commonplace, there is no universal, measurable way to quantify the fakeness or truthfulness of news. There are many fact-checking and media-bias detection tools, but they cannot objectively detect and clarify the more subtle and nuanced aims of manipulative actors that play a crucial role in news production. It can also be argued that the veracity of news depends not only on the actors that seek to manipulate it, but also on the positionality of its consumers. Therefore, one’s initial line of defense against misleading news lies not in the plethora of fact-checking devices but more in one’s pre-existing dispositions and skills to think and act in response to misleading information. This ability can be referred to as critical thinking, which can be more concretely expounded as “reasonable and reflective thinking focused on deciding what to believe or do” (Ennis, 2011, p. 15).

然而，即便「假新聞」一詞隨處可見，卻沒有統一、可衡量的方式來量化新聞的虛假性或真實性。目前有許多事實查核與媒體偏見檢測工具，但它們無法客觀地檢測與說明行為操弄者更狡猾、更細緻的目標，而這些操弄者往往在新聞的生產中發揮著重要作用。我們也可以說，新聞的真實性不僅取決於試圖操弄它的行為者，同時還取決於新聞受眾的位置性。因此，一個人對抗誤導性新聞的第一道防線，不在於這些五花八門的事實查核方式，反而在於個人所固有的性格，以及針對誤導性資訊的思考與行動等相關技能。這種能力可稱為批判性思考（critical thinking），意即「專注於決定相信什麼或做什麼的理性思考與反思性思考」（Ennis, 2011, p. 15）。

Taiwan, also known as the Republic of China (ROC), is at the forefront of information warfare. It is wedged between the geopolitical struggles of global and regional hegemonies such as the United States and China, the People's Republic of China (PRC). Compounding the matter are the Taiwan’s own political actors vying for influence and power. This struggle seeps into all aspects of life and practice, mainly manifesting itself on social media, a battleground of information warfare. The Ministry of Education of Taiwan is cognizant of these information campaigns, and efforts have been made to introduce media literacy into all parts of its education system. According to the ministry, the government has tried to promote media literacy education since 2000 (MOE, 2002, p. 1), with one of its primary goals to cultivate its “citizens” abilities for independent learning, critical thinking, and problem solving” (MOE, 2002, p. 2).

臺灣，也被稱為中華民國，正處於資訊戰的最前線。這是全球霸權與地區霸權之間——如美國與中國（中華人民共和國）——的地緣政治對抗。使問題惡化的是臺灣自身的政治行動者對影響力與權力的奪取。這場對抗遍布於現實生活的各個面向，主要於社群媒體中——資訊戰的戰場——展露無遺。臺灣的教育部注意到了這些資訊的煙硝，並已努力將媒體素養引入其教育體系。據該部稱，自2000年以來，政府一直試圖推展媒體素養教育（MOE, 2002, p. 1），其主要目標之一是培養「公民獨立學習、批判性思考以及解決問題的能力。」（MOE, 2002, p. 2）。

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上述段落認為，由於個人的位置性(positionality)，「假新聞」極難定義。此外，有許多人把不符合自身成見與偏好的新聞逕斥為假新聞。這其實相當危險，因為個人觀點將會變得愈發孤立與激進。

閱聽人應意識到，他們在網路上看到的每個資訊都有特定立場。是否真有毫無立場的新聞文章？為了對抗操弄性或強制性資訊（coercive information），我們必須意識到權力於個中的作用，以及我們自身的位置性如何形塑我們的詮釋。這是我們的第一道防線。

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參考文獻

Doshi, R. (2020, January). China steps up its information war in Taiwan. Foreign Affairs. Retrieved March, 21, 2021, from https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/china/2020-01-09/china-steps-its-information-war-taiwan

Ennis, R. H. (1985). A logical basis for measuring critical thinking skills. Educational leadership, 43(2), 44-48.

Lazer, D. M., Baum, M. A., Benkler, Y., Berinsky, A. J., Greenhill, K. M., Menczer, F., ... & Zittrain, J. L. (2018). The science of fake news. Science, 359(6380), 1094-1096.

MOE (Ministry of Education), Taiwan. (2002). White paper on media literacy educational policy. Retrieved March, 21, 2021, from http://english.moe.gov.tw/public/Attachment/ 2122416591771.pdf

Prier, J. (2017). Commanding the trend: Social media as information warfare. Strategic Studies Quarterly: SSQ, 11(4), 50-85.

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教育時評: http://bit.ly/39ABON9

相關詞彙: https://bit.ly/2UncrfI

TED相關影片: https://bit.ly/3BDsDKl

【台灣 - 前線的民主捍衛者】

最近有人說，台灣是世界上最危險的地方；但不管別人如何評價，台灣都是民主自由的捍衛者。

外交部吳部長接受美國智庫 #馬侃研究所（McCain Institute）邀請，在其舉辦的 #聖多納論壇 (The Sedona Forum) 發表預錄演說。吳部長在「民主捍衛者：來自全球前線的聲音」場次中重申，#中國威權主義擴張，對全球民主已造成威脅，而中國對台灣進行軍事脅迫、經濟施壓以及假訊息操作等手段，試圖在民主社會中製造混亂與猜疑，因為台灣的民主越昌盛，中國政府越不安。面對中國壓力，台灣人仍然會堅持捍衛 #民主自由與國家主權。

吳部長呼籲各界支持民主台灣，因為唯有民主同盟團結一致，民主才能獲得真正的勝利。

聖多納論壇是美國智庫「馬侃研究所」的年度高層對話，每年都邀請來自世界各國的政要與意見領袖出席。

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Someone recently said Taiwan is the most dangerous place on Earth. No matter what people said, Taiwan is on the front line of defending democracy.

Foreign Minister Wu was invited to prerecord a speech by U.S. think tank the McCain Institute for the annual Sedona Forum themed "Defending Democracy: Global Voices from the Frontlines." In his speech, Minister Wu said China's authoritarian expansionism poses a threat to democratic countries around the world, and its ongoing campaign of military and economic coercion against Taiwan backed by the dissemination of misinformation, disinformation and other measures is designed to sow discord and doubt among the people. The success of Taiwan's democracy makes the Chinese Communist Party uneasy, he said, adding Taiwan's people will continue to steadfastly defend their freedom, democracy and sovereignty in the face of Chinese pressure.

Minister Wu also called for democratic countries around the world to unite in support of Taiwan.

Episode 1: Fake news

聽力和口說練習:
聽力口說挑戰A: Critical Thinking: https://bit.ly/2P0wWrt
聽力口說挑戰B: http://bit.ly/2IQB7EV

Use language to acquire, analyze, and evaluate information! Grammar and pronunciation are important, but we must move beyond and use language as a catalyst for change!

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Extended reading (Advanced):
Opinion 1: https://www.theguardian.com/business-to-business/2018/feb/12/nice-threads-the-waste-based-fibres-cleaning-up-fashion

Opinion 2: https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/18/fashion/fashion-second-biggest-polluter-fake-news.html

Opinion 3: https://www.economist.com/the-economist-explains/2017/04/11/the-environmental-costs-of-creating-clothes

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「心智圖詞彙攻略」課程連結: https://bit.ly/2teELDq

「心智圖詞彙攻略」Q&As: http://bit.ly/2NzNkyO

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Video Q&As

1. an MIT ("an" was said but "n" was left out in the captions)

2. further ("further" was said, but "farther" was typed)

https://www.quickanddirtytips.com/…/…/further-versus-farther

3. points of view ("points of views" was typed) https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dict…/english/point-of-view Discussion on usage: http://bit.ly/31LVnPq

4. social media can be both plural or uncountable:

https://www.ldoceonline.com/dictionary/social-media
https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/social-media

Media and data are often used as collective nouns, so you will see them them follow by both a singular or plural verb form. The term “social media” is both uncountable and plural in modern English usage. The word “media” is traditionally a plural because “medium” is the singular.

5. "disinformation" is used in our class video rather than "misinformation" to stress the next phrase (so-called FAKE news): https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disinformation, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fake_news

Thank you all for your feedback!